While writing my first foray into the blogo-sphere for Ecollo, I had the opportunity to explore the world of genome mapping and the significant impact it could have on the agricultural community and food production. See How Genome Sequencing Helps Food Production. Truthfully, genetic sequencing was an area I didn’t know that much about and was skeptical about its benefits prior to that first assignment. But the more I read about it, the more I began to realize that this type of research also has tremendous potential for applications beyond higher yields in our fields.

Like all of the contributors to this site, I am passionate about the environment and am always looking for ways to do my part. I realize that my impact is just one small piece of the giant planet puzzle and that we will need to use all available tools if we are going to solve the problems we have created. If leveraging biotechnology and similar research into supporting our efforts for a cleaner and greener planet is possible, then I am all for it. Using genetic sequencing, we have the opportunity to make changes that will contribute to our effort by changing the impact we have on our environment.

Before I get into some examples of how this research could benefit the environment, you might be wondering what I am talking about when I refer to genome or genetic sequencing. Far from an expert on the subject, I turned to my favourite search engine for a definition and an idea of the scientific process behind mapping an organism’s genome.

As we know, all living matter is made up of millions of cells that are directed to perform various tasks by their genetic makeup or DNA. Each strand of DNA strand is made up of millions of its four component parts, called nucleotides. The order of these nucleotides determines the genetic sequence of the organism’s DNA. Identifying the order of an organism’s genome sequence can tell us details about how the animal or plant grows, defends itself from disease and produces identifying characteristics and behaviors of that plant or animal. Understanding these details can allow scientists to help species express more desirable traits while limiting ones that are not as beneficial to development of the plant or animal. As I have discovered through a bit of exploration into the matter, there is a lot of work being done in Canada and around the world to catalogue the genomes of species so that we can use this knowledge to benefit both the agricultural sector and our environment.

One of the largest challenges we face when dealing with our current climate crisis is the development of new clean and safe energy sources. Microbial genomic research will increase the efficiency with which plant matter from sugar cane, sunflowers, wheat and corn can be fermented into ethanol for a more planet friendly fuel. Current processes result in a lot of waste with comparatively little product. This investigation will allow us to use plants more efficiently and increase their economic value. The waste products from the biofuel and plastic production process can be used as adhesives and resins. Very little needs to be wasted. By increasing productivity and minimizing waste, we can ensure that we have enough of these plant products for food production as well as developing energy resources, which is the central argument in the food versus fuel debate.

While scientists strive to make changes in the way we develop new energy sources, they are also looking at how we will be able to deal with the waste that is being created from our current energy sources. Understanding which genomes control carbon dioxide absorption in various plant species could help us deal with the enormous challenges we face in meeting the carbon emissions reduction targets. Since we are dependent on current energy sources for the time being, other genome research is investigating how the current processes can be made more efficient and environmentally sensitive. By understanding the bioprocesses and bacteria in the oil sands and coal beds, scientists will improve their knowledge of how methane is produced in these processes and their ability to identify the enzymes that control the natural cracking of hydrocarbons into methane and carbon dioxide, two of the major contributors responsible for our changing climate.

Microbial genomic research is also investigating an increase in the efficiency of environmental remediation and the development of environmental monitoring techniques that will detect pollutants. Organisms in bioreactor waste processing are also being sequenced so that scientists can increase the organism’s ability to deal with our waste.

Beyond plants and microorganisms, the genomes of insects and animals are being sequenced. Understanding the genomes of pests can allow farmers to place directed insecticides that target pest species and don’t harm the useful insects. While I couldn’t find any direct evidence to suggest that there is research currently being with endangered species, I feel that this is where genetic research could have one of the most significant benefits. Many endangered species are facing new and evolving diseases that are threatening the efforts of individuals trying to re-establish populations around the world. An example of this is the Elephant endotheliotropic herpes virus that is killing elephants in both zoos and their natural habitats. There is currently no cure for this disease although animals can be carriers of it and not show any symptoms. By isolating the genomes that influence this resistance to the disease, scientists may be able to access knowledge that will help save one of the world’s most recognizable and charismatic species.

I recognize that with any research in the field of genetics there is always going to be an element of controversy. I am also not saying that genome sequencing is going to be the best fix for the problems that we have created in our environment. I do believe however, that with careful use of the technologies and knowledge available to us, that they can become part of a large toolkit of resources that can help our environment for the better.

» SciBlogs

Scientists have recently announced the completion of two projects that sequenced both pig and cucumber genomes. According to the reports, this scientific achievement stands to have a tremendous impact on future research, particularly in the areas of human medicine and agriculture. As I read through the article my first question was, and probably that of most people, what the heck is genome sequencing anyway?

After a quick trip to my favourite search engine and a visit back to my days in high school biology (who knew I would use this stuff again?!), here is what I learned:
All living matter is made up of millions of cells that are directed to perform various functions by their genetic makeup or DNA. The DNA strand is made up of millions of its four component parts, called nucleotides, which determine the genetic sequence of the organism’s DNA.

Identifying the study subject’s particular genome sequence can tell us details about how the animal or plant grows, defends itself from disease and produces the characteristics and behaviours that we identify the plant or animal with.

While I think I will leave this type of work to the professionals, I was most intrigued about the part of the announcement that describes the possible impacts this research will have on human medicine and the agricultural sector. What will this understanding do to our Sunday pork loin roasts or my grandmother’s cucumber sandwiches?

A link to agriculture

As scientists now have an understanding of how plants and animals express certain characteristics, they can genetically modify organisms to express more of the desired characteristics and less of those that are not so desirable. Being able to help organisms express their most desired characteristics will reduce waste, increase productivity of an organization, save producers time and money and produce higher yielding, higher quality food products necessary to feed a growing and starving world.

As the latest organisms to contribute to the ongoing research in genetic sequencing, the genomes of pigs and cucumbers hold the secret to more than a great tasting roast and a refreshing crunch. For example, in a swine breed that commonly develops leg problems, scientists will be able to isolate the sequence that controls leg conformation and be able to modify that gene to lower or even eliminate the occurrence of that type of problem. Pig producers, particularly those in dry areas, will be able to raise livestock who use water more efficiently and have a resistance to parasites and zoonotic diseases, such as H1N1, which also happens to affect humans. As pork represents about 40% of the world meat production, overcoming these common challenges should have a pretty huge effect on the global economy. Being pretty health conscious, I get pretty excited at the prospect of increased food quality and the promises of lower fat pork products. And since pig organs are commonly used for transplantation into humans, the more information we have about them, the better chance of transplant success.

Similarly, in cucumbers, understanding how the plants defend themselves from something like the mosaic virus, scientists can help develop a plant that expresses those characteristics and thus reduce the amount of crop lost to this common cucumber disease or any other type of pest. They will also be able to develop varieties that germinate faster, have a greater cold tolerance, have larger yields and have the potential to grow in a wider variety of climates. As the cucumber is a representative of the cucurbit family, which includes pumpkins, melon, squash and watermelon, this research will extend to a large variety of crops that have economic consequences worldwide.

A continuing challenge

While this story is encouraging, it can’t be finished without mentioning that there are many concerns about using biotechnology to change the way we raise or grow our food supply. Even as the genome sequencing of these organisms leads to a greater understanding of how they work, pigs and cucumbers are just a small part of a larger natural system. Genome sequencing research and biotechnology have the amazing potential to change our economy, human health and agricultural systems in many positive ways, we just have to be prepared to address the challenges that this new technology will bring along the way.

» Science Fair

Last October, in his first major address on the subject, Microsoft billionaire Bill Gates announced $120 million US in grants to support nine agricultural projects in Africa and India. This latest donation brings his Foundation’s support for agricultural development to $1.4 billion. According to Gates, this is just the beginning...

Speaking in Des Moines, Iowa on the eve of World Food Day, Gates praised Nobel Prize-winning scientist Norman Borlaug, who developed a disease resistant variety of wheat that saved “hundreds of millions” of lives. Fueled by Borlaug’s success and Rockefeller family money, the ensuing “Green Revolution” was, according to Gates, “one of the greatest achievements of the 20th century”, that “didn’t go far enough. It didn’t go to Africa.”

Brainchild of a trip to Mexico in the early ‘40’s by Nelson Rockefeller and Henry Wallace (founder of Pioneer Hi-Bred Seed, also US Secretary of Agriculture and Vice President under F.D. Roosevelt), the Green Revolution was based on solving world hunger though the development of hybrid seeds for emerging markets. Mexico had asked the US for help to develop a new variety of wheat for its growing population. After that trip, Rockefeller funded it and hired Borlaug to get it done. According to Borlaug “We spent nearly 20 years breeding high-yield dwarf wheat that resisted a variety of plant pests and diseases and yielded two to three times more grain than traditional varieties. “

Picking up from where Rockefeller left off, Gates is convinced that the future for agriculture — not only Africa but also the rest of the world — lies in genetically modified crops.

“We have to develop crops that can grow in a drought; that can survive in a flood; that can resist pests and disease. We need higher yields on the same land in harsher weather. And we will never get it without a continuous and urgent science-based search to increase productivity.”

Endowed with $34.6 billion, the Gates Foundation must donate at least $1.5 billion a year to charitable projects to maintain its tax status; 2008 grant payments were almost double that and their donation budget for the health sector exceeds that of the World Health Organization.

According to the FAO, 85 percent of the world’s farmers farm less than two hectares. Together with their families, they represent one-third of the world’s population. Of those farmers with one or more hectares of GM crops, 90 percent are smallholders in developing countries. In Africa, 4 out of 5 farmers are smallholders, the majority women.

Gates believes that helping the world’s poorest smallholder farmers grow more crops and get them to market “is the world's single most powerful lever for reducing hunger and poverty…”

The recently announced funding for Africa will support the following projects:

• funding for legumes that fix nitrogen in the soil,
• development of higher yielding varieties of sorghum and millet;
• development of new varieties of sweet potatoes that resist pests and have a higher vitamin content;
• funding to ACRA (The Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa, heavily supported by both the Gates and the Rockefeller foundations) to support the creation of government policies for small farmers and provide “training and resources” to African governments as they develop laws and regulations concerning the use of biotechnologies;

Impressive, yes. We are losing the fight against poverty. In 2005, 15 years of consecutive poverty reductions came to a sudden halt, and poverty and hunger has been on the rise ever since. Africa, home to over 200 million chronically malnourished people, desperately needs assistance.

But Gates philanthropic support to Africa is not without controversy.

For many, “Green Revolution” is synonymous with large scale mono-cropping, high levels of pesticide and chemical use, loss of biodiversity, a high degree of mechanization, the depletion of soil nutrients, water erosion, loss of domestic food supplies as land shifts to production of non-food and export crops, and alienation of peasant farmers from the land. Gates acknowledges this but says he wants to do things differently in Africa.

What Gates remains committed to is the Green Revolution’s core belief that the solution to world hunger lies in genetically modified seeds. And therein lies the real controversy.

Gates and his colleagues at the Rockefeller Foundation, the World Bank, the United Nations World Food Program, the International Rice Institute argue that genetic modification of plants allows for reduced pesticide use, drought and flood tolerance, higher yields and the ability to incorporate nutrients not naturally occurring, thereby helping to boost production and alleviate hunger. Companies like Dupont/Pioneer Hi-Bred, Monsanto, Syngenta and others who produce and sell genetically modified seeds agree.

But there are many respected policy-makers and scientists who make strong arguments against the introduction of genetically modified crops to Africa. They include genetic instability and cross contamination of genetic material (development of super weeds), development of pesticide resistant bugs, reduction in bio-diversity (e.g. Bt corn pollen is toxic to Monarch Butterfly), potential human health effects (peas in Bangladesh and India), ecological hazards associated with terminator gene technology, cost to farmers to annually purchase new seeds (cannot save seeds), impediments to future trade with Europe (which bans GMO’s) and ethical issues such as patenting genetic material, illegal extraction/expropriation of local genetic material and the resulting lack of fair and equitable distribution of resources.

Difficult questions. With no easy answers. Gates, through the magnitude of his targeted philanthropy, will undoubtedly change the face of African agriculture. Whether this will contribute positively to the long term sustainability of its communities remains to be seen.

Global agribusiness has used the green revolution as a trampoline to colonize the soils of Latin America. Africa is the dark continent about to light up. This time, it will begin with helping the small, local farmers. By offering to sell them magic seeds that may, in the end, wind up costing them the farm.

» AFP